Oriental, Conventional and Non-Conventional Learning Programmes

This topic groups India's learning provision into three streams. Oriental learning is the study of classical Indian and Asian languages, philosophy, religion and traditional sciences, delivered by institutions that grew out of the older pathshala, tol, madrasa and monastic traditions. Conventional learning means regular, campus-based, face-to-face education in schools, colleges and universities leading to recognised degrees. Non-conventional learning covers every route that relaxes the fixed time, place, pace or entry rule of the classroom: open and distance learning, online and blended programmes, MOOCs, open schooling, adult and non-formal education, continuing education and lifelong learning. NTA questions on this topic usually ask for the name of an institution or Act, the distinguishing feature of a mode, or a comparison between regular and distance modes.

Historical roots. Before the colonial period, Sanskrit learning was carried on in pathshalas, tols (especially in Bengal) and Banaras and Nadia centres, while Persian and Arabic learning was carried on in maktabs and madrasas. The East India Company first patronised this tradition: the Calcutta Madrasa (1781, Warren Hastings), the Asiatic Society (1784, William Jones) and the Sanskrit College at Banaras (1791, Jonathan Duncan). Fort William College (1800, Lord Wellesley) trained British officials in Indian languages. The Charter Act of 1813 set aside one lakh rupees annually for the revival and improvement of literature and the learned natives of India, and the Orientalist versus Anglicist controversy followed. Macaulay's Minute of 1835 and Bentinck's resolution of that year shifted official funding towards English education, which sidelined oriental institutions but did not end them.

National education movements. In reaction to the colonial system, Indian reformers set up their own institutions: Tagore's school at Santiniketan (1901), which became Visva-Bharati (1921); Gurukul Kangri (1902, Swami Shraddhanand); Jamia Millia Islamia (1920); Gujarat Vidyapith (1920, Gandhi); Kashi Vidyapith (1921) and Tilak Vidyapeeth. These emerged strongly during the Non-Cooperation Movement and aimed to combine tradition with modern needs.

After independence. The Radhakrishnan Commission discussed Sanskrit, and the Sanskrit Commission (1956 to 57) led by Suniti Kumar Chatterji recommended strengthening Sanskrit education. A series of Sanskrit universities were created by States: Sampurnanand Sanskrit University (Varanasi), Kameshwar Singh Darbhanga Sanskrit University (Bihar), Sri Jagannath Sanskrit University (Puri) and Kavikulaguru Kalidas Sanskrit University (Ramtek, Maharashtra), among others. The Centre then created three Central Sanskrit Universities through the Central Sanskrit Universities Act, 2020: Rashtriya Sanskrit Sansthan (New Delhi), Shri Lal Bahadur Shastri Rashtriya Sanskrit Vidyapeeth (New Delhi) and Rashtriya Sanskrit Vidyapeeth (Tirupati). Maharshi Sandipani Rashtriya Veda Vidya Pratishthan (Ujjain) supports Vedic learning.

Buddhist, Tibetan and other oriental institutions. Nava Nalanda Mahavihara (Bihar) is known for Pali and Buddhist studies; the Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies is at Sarnath; the Central Institute of Buddhist Studies is at Leh. Maulana Azad National Urdu University (Hyderabad, 1998) promotes Urdu and offers distance education. Arabic and Persian learning continues in madrasas, Aligarh and Jamia.

Classical languages. The government recognises classical languages: Tamil (2004), Sanskrit (2005), Telugu and Kannada (2008), Malayalam (2013), Odia (2014). In October 2024 Marathi, Pali, Prakrit, Assamese and Bengali were added, making eleven. Classical status brings dedicated centres, chairs and awards.

Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS). An IKS Division was created at AICTE in 2020. NEP 2020 recommends integrating Indian knowledge, languages, arts and traditions into curricula, and proposes the Indian Institute of Translation and Interpretation. UGC and AICTE have framed IKS credit courses.

Conventional learning is the regular mode: scheduled classes, physical attendance, teacher-led instruction, internal assessment and end-term examinations. Its institutional types are universities (Central, State, Deemed, Private), colleges (government, aided, private, autonomous, affiliated, constituent) and Institutes of National Importance. Affiliating universities (such as many State universities) prescribe courses and conduct exams for affiliated colleges; unitary universities teach mainly on their own campus; autonomous colleges frame their own syllabi but degrees are awarded by the parent university. The Kothari Commission proposed autonomous colleges, and NEP 2020 proposes to phase out affiliation over about 15 years.

Strengths: direct interaction, peer learning, laboratories and library access, campus life. Limitations: fixed time and place, higher cost, limited seats, and difficulty for working adults.

3.4.1 Open and distance learning (ODL)

Core ideas. In distance education teacher and learner are physically separated, and communication is mediated by print, broadcast, digital or other media. "Open" refers to removal of barriers of entry qualifications, age, place and pace. The main instructional input is Self-Learning Material (SLM), supported by counselling at study centres, assignments (continuous evaluation) and term-end examinations. In IGNOU, term-end examination carries about 70 per cent weightage, assignments 30 per cent, and one credit equals 30 hours of study.

Theorists. Charles Wedemeyer: independent study. Michael G. Moore: theory of transactional distance. Otto Peters: industrialisation of teaching. Börje Holmberg: guided didactic conversation. Malcolm Knowles: andragogy (adult learning).

Milestones.

• 1962: correspondence courses at the University of Delhi.

• 1964 to 66: Kothari Commission recommends correspondence and evening courses.

• 1982: Andhra Pradesh (now Dr. B. R. Ambedkar) Open University at Hyderabad, the first open university.

• 1985: IGNOU established by Act of Parliament; headquarters at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi; first Vice-Chancellor G. Ram Reddy; called the "People's University".

• 1986: NPE gives special emphasis to open learning.

• 1991: Distance Education Council (DEC) set up under IGNOU Act; its functions were transferred to UGC in 2013 (UGC-DEB).

• State Open Universities: Kota (now Vardhaman Mahaveer Open University, 1987), Nalanda Open University (Patna, 1987), Yashwantrao Chavan Maharashtra Open University (Nashik, 1989), Bhoj Open University (1991), Netaji Subhas Open University (Kolkata, 1997), Karnataka State Open University (1996), Tamil Nadu Open University (2002), and others in Assam, Uttarakhand, Chhattisgarh and elsewhere.

• Dual-mode universities (such as Delhi University) run regular and distance programmes.

• Media support: Gyan Darshan (TV), Gyan Vani (FM radio), EDUSAT (2004), the Consortium for Educational Communication (CEC), and UGC's Countrywide Classroom.

UGC (Open and Distance Learning Programmes and Online Programmes) Regulations, 2020. HEIs can offer ODL or online programmes if they hold a NAAC score of at least 3.26 (on a 4-point scale) or are within the top 100 in NIRF (overall or university category), among other conditions. Degrees are equivalent to those of the conventional mode. Certain programmes such as medicine, engineering and several professional courses are not allowed through ODL or online mode.

3.4.2 Online and blended learning

MOOCs (Massive Open Online Courses) are free or low-cost courses open to large numbers. cMOOCs follow connectivism (George Siemens, Stephen Downes) and rely on networks; xMOOCs are structured and content-led (Coursera, edX, Udacity). SWAYAM (2017) is India's MOOC platform with a four-quadrant approach (video lecture, reading material, self-assessment, discussion forum). National coordinators: NPTEL (engineering), CEC (undergraduate non-technical), UGC (postgraduate non-technical), NCERT and NIOS (school), IGNOU (out-of-school), IIM Bangalore (management), NITTTR (teacher training). UGC allows up to 40 per cent of credits in a programme through SWAYAM.

Other digital initiatives. NPTEL (2003), NMEICT (2009), National Digital Library of India (NDLI), e-PG Pathshala, Shodhganga (theses repository), SWAYAM Prabha (DTH channels), Virtual Labs, DIKSHA and NROER (school level), PM eVidya. Blended learning combines face-to-face and online elements; a flipped classroom moves content delivery online and uses class time for discussion. Synchronous learning happens in real time (live class); asynchronous learning is time-independent (recorded lectures, forums). Moodle is an open-source LMS. Open Educational Resources are often licensed under Creative Commons.

3.4.3 Non-formal, adult and lifelong education

Formal education is structured, graded and leads to recognised qualifications. Non-formal education is organised but flexible and outside the formal system. Informal education is incidental, lifelong learning from family, peers and media. India's adult education programmes: National Adult Education Programme (1978), National Literacy Mission (1988), Saakshar Bharat (2009) and ULLAS, the New India Literacy Programme (2022 to 27). Jan Shikshan Sansthans (earlier Shramik Vidyapeeth) provide vocational training to non-literate and neo-literate adults. The National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS, 1989) serves open schooling. The Faure Commission (1972), Learning to Be, promoted lifelong education and the learning society.

Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) certifies skills acquired informally. Credit transfer through the Academic Bank of Credits allows learners to move between modes (see topic 6).